Mehrgarh (Pakistan) Life in the Indus Valley Before Harappa

Mehrgarh is a large Neolithic and Chalcolithic site located at the foot of the Bolan pass on the Kachi plain of Baluchistan (also spelled Balochistan), in modern day Pakistan. Continuously occupied between about 7000 to 2600 BC, Mehrgarh is the earliest known Neolithic site in the northwest Indian subcontinent, with early evidence of farming (wheat and barley), herding (cattle, sheep, and goats) and metallurgy. The site is located on the principal route between what is now Afghanistan and the Indus Valley: this route was also undoubtedly part of a trading connection established quite early between the Near East and the Indian subcontinent. Chronology Mehrgarhs importance to understanding the Indus Valley is its nearly unparalleled preservation of pre-Indus societies. Aceramic Neolithic founding 7000 to 5500 BCNeolithic Period II 5500 to 4800 (16 ha)Chalcolithic Period III 4800 to 3500 (9 ha)Chalcolithic Period IV, 3500 to 3250 BCChalcolithic V 3250 to 3000 (18 ha)Chalcolithic VI 3000 to 2800Chalcolithic VII-Early Bronze Age 2800 to 2600 Aceramic Neolithic The earliest settled portion of Mehrgarh is found in an area called MR.3, in the northeast corner of the immense site. Mehrgarh was a small farming and pastoralist village between 7000-5500 BC, with mud brick houses and granaries. The early residents used local copper ore, basket containers lined with bitumen, and an array of bone tools. Plant foods used during this period included domesticated and wild six-rowed barley, domestic einkorn and emmer wheat, and wild Indian jujube (Zizyphus spp) and date palms (Phoenix dactylifera). Sheep, goats, and cattle were herded at Mehrgarh beginning during this early period. Hunted animals include gazelle, swamp deer, nilgai, blackbuck onager, chital, water buffalo, wild pig and elephant. The earliest residences at Mehrgarh were freestanding, multi-roomed rectangular houses built with long, cigar-shaped and mortared mudbricks: these structures are very similar to Prepottery Neolithic (PPN) hunter-gatherers in early 7th millennium Mesopotamia. Burials were placed in brick-lined tombs, accompanied by shell and turquoise beads. Even at this early date, the similarities of crafts, architecture, and agricultural and funerary practices indicate some sort of connection between Mehrgarh and Mesopotamia. Neolithic Period II 5500 to 4800 By the sixth millennium, agriculture had become firmly established at Mehrgarh, based on mostly (~90 percent) locally domesticated barley but also wheat from the near east. The earliest pottery was made by sequential slab construction, and the site contained circular fire pits filled with burnt pebbles and large granaries, characteristics also of similarly dated Mesopotamian sites. Buildings made of sun-dried brick were large and rectangular, symmetrically divided into small square or rectangular units. They were doorless and lack of residential remains, suggesting to researchers that at least some of they were storage facilities for grains or other commodities which were communally shared. Other buildings are standardized rooms surrounded by large open work spaces where craft-working activities took place, including the beginnings of the extensive bead-making characteristic of the Indus. Chalcolithic Period III 4800 to 3500 and IV 3500 to 3250 BC By the Chalcolithic Period III at Mehrgarh, the community, now well over 100 hectares, consisted of large spaces with groups of building divided into residences and storage units, but more elaborate, with foundations of pebbles embedded in clay. The bricks were made with molds, and along with fine painted wheel-thrown pottery, and a variety of agricultural and craft practices. Chalcolithic Period IV showed a continuity in pottery and crafts but progressive stylistic changes. During this period, the region split into small and medium sized compact settlements connected by canals. Some of the settlements included blocks of houses with courtyards separated by small passageways; and the presence of large storage jars in rooms and courtyards. Dentistry at Mehrgarh A recent study at Mehrgarh showed that during Period III, people were using bead-making techniques to experiment with dentistry: tooth decay in humans is a direct outgrowth of a reliance on agriculture. Researchers examining burials in a cemetery at MR3 discovered drill holes on at least eleven molars. Light microscopy showed the holes were conical, cylindrical or trapezoidal in shape. A few had concentric rings showing drill bit marks, and a few had some evidence for decay. No filling material was noted, but tooth wear on the drill marks indicate that each of these individuals continued to live on after the drilling was completed. Coppa and colleagues (2006) pointed out that only four of the eleven teeth contained clear evidence of decay associated with drilling; however, the drilled teeth are all molars located in the back of both lower and upper jaws, and thus are not likely to have been drilled for decorative purposes. Flint drill bits are a characteristic tool from Mehrgarh, mostly used with producing beads. The researchers conducted experiments and discovered that a flint drill bit attached to a bow-drill can produce similar holes in human enamel in under a minute: these modern experiments were not, of course, used on living humans. The dental techniques have only been discovered on only 11 teeth out of a total of 3,880 examined from 225 individuals, so tooth-drilling was a rare occurrence, and, it appears to have been a short-lived experiment as well. Although the MR3 cemetery contains younger skeletal material (into the Chalcolithic), no evidence for tooth drilling has been found later than 4500 BC. Later Periods at Mehrgarh Later periods included craft activities such as flint knapping, tanning, and expanded bead production; and a significant level of metal-working, particularly copper. The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BC, when it was abandoned, about the time when the Harappan periods of the Indus civilization began to flourish at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Kot Diji, among other sites. Mehrgarh was discovered and excavated by an international led by French archaeologist  Jean-Franà §ois Jarrige; the site was excavated continuously between 1974 and 1986 by the French Archaeological Mission in collaboration with the Department of Archaeology of Pakstan. Sources Coppa, A. Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry. Nature 440, L. Bondioli, A. Cucina, et al., Nature, April 5, 2006. Gangal K, Sarson GR, and Shukurov A. 2014. The Near-Eastern Roots of the Neolithic in South Asia. PLoS ONE 9(5):e95714. Jarrige J-F. 1993. The Early Architectural Traditions of Greater Indus as Seen from Mehrgarh, Baluchistan. Studies in the History of Art 31:25-33. Jarrige J-F, Jarrige C, Quivron G, Wengler L, and Sarmiento Castillo D. 2013. Mehrgarh. Pakistan: Editions de Boccard.Neolithic Period - Seasons 1997-2000 Khan A, and Lemmen C. 2013. Bricks and urbanism in the Indus Valley rise and decline. History and Philosophy of Physics (​physicshist-ph)​​ arXiv:1303.1426v1. Lukacs JR. 1983. Human Dental Remains From Early Neolithic Levels at Mehrgarh, Baluchistan. Cu rrent Anthropology 24(3):390-392. Moulherat C, Tengberg M, Haquet J-F, and Mille Bt. 2002. First Evidence of Cotton at Neolithic Mehrgarh, Pakistan: Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead. Journal of Archaeological Science 29(12):1393-1401. Possehl GL. 1990. Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization. Annual Review of Anthropology 19:261-282. Sellier P. 1989. Hypotheses and Estimators for the Demographic Interpretation of the Chalcolithic Population from Mehrgarh, Pakistan. East and West 39(1/4):11-42.

Analysis Of Franz Kafka s The Metamorphosis - 1711 Words

Many authors use symbolism throughout their work and in their characters to portray a certain theme that most readers can relate to. Franz Kafka, a renowned German-speaking fiction writer of the 20th century, uses a unique style of writing that many people believe is a telling of his own life story. In his well-known short story, â€Å"The Metamorphosis†, many similarities and connections can be seen between the main character, Gregor Samsa, and the author himself, Franz Kafka. A major comparison that can be made is the fact that both Samsa and Kafka died slow, lonesome deaths after being in a dysfunctional relationship with their families and especially their father figures. Franz Kafka was diagnosed with tuberculosis in 1917, which he was forced to live with until he died in 1924 at the age of forty-one. Kafka’s terminal disease can be compared to Gregor Samsa’s terminal metamorphosis, which also killed Gregor at a young age. Franz ‘Samsa’ Kafka in serts himself into the story â€Å"The Metamorphosis†, into the Samsa family, and into Gregor Samsa himself. In the short story â€Å"The Metamorphosis† by Franz Kafka, the theme of transformation or metamorphosis is found numerous times throughout the text, starting with an extremely bizarre incident that initially pulls the reader into the story. The main character, Gregor Samsa, is randomly transformed into a giant insect. Not only does Gregor go through an obvious physical change, but he undergoes a psychological transformation as well,Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Franz Kafka s The Metamorphosis 3979 Words   |  16 PagesAustin Day Professor Imali Abala English 357 18 February 2015 The Theme of Alienation in Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis The Metamorphosis written by Franz Kafka in 1915 is said to be one of the greatest literary works of all time and is seen as one of Kafka’s best and most popular works of literature. 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Look a little closer and the secret message Franz Kafka wrote for his fatherRead MoreAnalysis Of Franz Kafka s The Metamorphosis1500 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"In the morning†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ verminous bug.† In Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis, the opening sentence introduces the main character, event and the setting. Gregor Samsa is one of the only two characters who are addressed by name, this reflects his importance in the story because he is the protagonist and he plays a central role in the lives of his family and friends. Besides introducing the central character, this opening line has a dramatic impact on readers. It draws the reader straight to Gregor Samsa’sRead MoreAnalysis Of Franz Kafka s The Metamorphosis 948 Words   |  4 PagesFreud says one way humans express their hidden feeling is through dreams. This idea is the foundation for the dream interpretation of â€Å"The Metamorphosis.† Dreams have the capacity to encapture events that never happen in reality. 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A Critical Analysis of an Ethical Proposition Based Free Essays

Ethical situations on the subject of killing and the sacrifice of human lives are always subject to critical analysis and intensive argumentation. The so-called sacrifice of the few for the good of the many is usually founded upon Aquinas’ Natural Law and Doctrine of Double Effect, both of which were logically formulated by the philosopher yet both also lend themselves to criticisms. Aquinas defines the Natural Law based on the Eternal Law. We will write a custom essay sample on A Critical Analysis of an Ethical Proposition Based or any similar topic only for you Order Now He formulated the Eternal Law in his Summa Theologiae and defines it as â€Å"the idea in God’s intellect by which He governs the world† (Magee, 1999). The Natural Law according to Aquinas is â€Å"humans’ participation in the Eternal Law through reason and will† (Magee, 1999). The Doctrine of Double Effect, on the other hand, is defined as a set of ethical criteria for evaluating whether one should do an act that would, in the process of producing a positive effect, also produce a negative effect (McIntyre, 2009). Our ethical proposition â€Å"It is always wrong to kill innocent people, even if you could save many other lives by doing so† is a rather weak proposition after it is analyzed with reference to Aquinas’ two aforementioned doctrines. Critical Analysis With Reference to the Natural Law. There are various different levels of precepts that the Natural Law entails. The first of which is â€Å"Good is to be done and pursued and evil avoided† (Magee, 1999). However, Aquinas has specified that a â€Å"good† thing is something â€Å"that we know immediately, by inclination†¦that [would] count as good and thus to be pursued† (Murphy, 2008). Aquinas specifies these things as life, knowledge, procreation, society, and reasonable conduct. First Precept. Applying the above precept to the given ethical situation, â€Å"It is always wrong to kill innocent people, even if you could save many other lives by doing so,† one can see that the whole proposition logically satisfies the first part of the precept â€Å"Good is to be done and pursued.† Both the act of not killing innocent people and saving many other lives are believed to be inherently good, that is, good in itself. However, the proposition might not in a way satisfy the second part of the precept â€Å"[that] evil [should be] avoided.† This is because the proposition implies a prohibition of killing innocent people, which, if done, would result in a possible non-fulfillment of the second part of the proposition: â€Å"You could save many other lives by doing so.† If many other lives are not saved, then this means one has allowed the evil of death to take lives away, thus evil is not avoided, which is the second part of the precept. In short, our proposition fails the first precept of the Natural Law. Second Precept. Another precept of the Natural Law is that it â€Å"commands that we preserve ourselves in being† and one thing that can be deduced from this is that one is required to â€Å"take care of [his life] and transmit that life to the next generation† (Magee, 1999). This may obviously refer to the goodness of procreation but it may not be necessarily the case because such a statement may translate to the preservation of the self for the benefit of the next generation. This precept on preservation may agree with the first part of the given ethical proposition: â€Å"it is always wrong to kill innocent people,† for the killing of people, whether innocent or not, opposes the idea of self-preservation. However, the second part of the proposition, â€Å"you could save many other lives by doing so, or by killing innocent people,† does not agree with the precept on preservation. The reason is that if you decide to preserve the lives of the innocent, then your action may result in the non-preservation of the lives of many others. This now serves as another proof of the weakness of the given proposition vis-à  -vis the precept of the Natural Law on preservation. With Reference to the Doctrine of Double Effect. The proposition, â€Å"It is always wrong to kill innocent people, even if you could save many other lives by doing so,† lends itself to more criticisms on the weakness of its argument when criticized with reference to the Doctrine of Double Effect. The doctrine consists of four conditions that must be met before one can declare an act morally permissible (McIntyre, 2009). And for this the proposition should be constructed into a conditional sentence: If one kills innocent people, it is wrong and hence presumed to be not morally permissible. Therefore the moral permissibility of the killing of innocent people will be evaluated vis-à  -vis the four conditions of the Doctrine of Double Effect. Furthermore, the claim of the proposition that killing innocent people is morally wrong under all circumstances will be logically investigated. First Condition. The first condition is the nature-of-the-act condition, which states that â€Å"the action must be either morally good or indifferent† (McIntyre, 2009). This may somehow oppose what we are intending to prove. It is indeed true that the killing of innocent people is not morally good nor is it morally indifferent. Second Condition. The second condition is the means-end condition, which states that â€Å"the bad effect must not be the means by which one achieves the good effect† (McIntyre, 2009). This is also a proof in favor of the proposition. If the goal is to avoid the death of many other lives, then it follows, according to the second condition, that death should not be meted out on innocent people just for the sake of the many others. Based on the second condition, death must not be utilized to avoid death. With the second condition, he proposition remains solid. Third Condition. The third condition is the right-intention condition, which states that â€Å"the intention must be the achieving of only the good effect, with the bad effect being only an unintended side effect† (McIntyre, 2009). It is now here that the proposition weakens. Based on the context of the proposition, the killing of innocent people, without any regard to the inherent morality or immorality of the act, has the intention of achieving only the good effect of saving many other people’s lives, thus making the killing of the innocent a morally permissible act. The bad effect, which is the death of the innocent, is anyway simply a side effect. Fourth Condition. The last condition is the proportionality condition, which states that â€Å"the good effect must be at least equivalent in importance to the bad effect† (McIntyre, 2009). Although there will always be a question about the exactness of such an equivalence of importance, the majority may agree that, in the proposition, the saving of the lives of many far outweighs the killing of the lives of but a few innocent people. This therefore dismisses the killing of the innocent as a morally permissible act and such an argument counters the proposition. How to cite A Critical Analysis of an Ethical Proposition Based, Papers

Business Research Advantages and Disadvantages †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Social Networks in Business. Answer: Business research includes in depth knowledge, critical analysis capabilities, communication skills and inference skills. There are two kinds of research that is undertaken in order to get a holistic view of the topic firstly is the secondary research and secondly is the primary research. Business Research is a method of strategic and insightful study or investigation in order to find a solution to a challenge or issue. Research can also be based on questions and focused on answering the question with critical analysis which is further supported by evidence, compilation, presentation, analysis collection and explanation of applicable particulars, data and information. Its also methodical attempt to determine constructive and beneficial facts or relationships (Bryman and Bell 2015). Week 1: At the beginning of the course I learnt what a business research is all about. Business research is basically any study that has been undertaken to understand and analyze the trends in the business and market. With globalization and technological advances that are being implemented by the industries the trends in the business are studied and analyzed by many scholars in order to provide a platform for future business studies. Concepts, theories and the way a business is conducted in the market are explained in business reports. Business research is of two types based on the way the study has been conducted firstly is the qualitative research which includes explanation and comprehensive research procedures in order to understand thoroughly the topic of discussion as well as reach a point of conclusion. It is an individual judgment and assessment of the variables, attributes, motives, opinions, requirements, inclination, behavior etc regarding the topic of research. Qualitative research serves as in instrument for the researcher to jot down the insights and impressions he or she has received for the procedure that has been undertaken to conduct the research (Collis and Hussey 2013). On the other hand quantitative research is the back up and supports that of the numerical values, charts and diagrams that are formulated by the researcher in order to provide evidence for the conclusion and the qualitative research. This research is established on measurement / quantification of the topic that is under study. This kind of research is more popular and given more significance as it is based on the information that is gathered and is more objective and rational based (Eriksson and Kovalainen 2015). Furthermore based on the aim and objective of the study the nature of the report has been also divided in two segments: the descriptive and explanatory. The objective of descriptive study is narrative about the person, situation, organization or an occurrence in the way it is. It usually includes the finding of the facts and stating them without any alteration and personal inputs. In the first week of the course I also learnt about the importance of business research. Business research helps in understanding the market position and therefore provides guidance to the for the development of a business organization or the industry in the market. Business research is also important to manage the business unit. There are various concepts and methodologies that are explained analyzed in research hence gives a deeper understanding about how to manage a business, deal with the challenges and issues like employee turnover and incorporation of latest technology in the business etc. Week 2: Any kind of research that is undertaken by the researcher takes a large and significant period of time for completion. Hence it is very important to wisely use the time and resource that the researcher has at his or her disposal in order to receive maximum and appropriate output. Before commencing on the research firstly the topic has to be assessed with the help of assistance. After that the process and the methodology should be well planned and organized in order to save time and make optimum use of the allocated resource. Research design is the process by which a researcher chocks out the plan to conduct the research operation. It includes identification of the research problem and justifying the selection of topic. Hypothesis of the research as well as research questions are included in the design. It also contains the description of the data which will be necessary for an adequate testing of the hypotheses and explain how such data will be obtained. Week 3: During the third week I discovered the procedure of writing a business report follows a strict template in order to maintain a system of and rationale idea to the person who is reading the report. It always begins with an abstract or a executive summary about the topic and then goes into the contents of the report which is then followed by the introduction to the topic of research. Literature review is a part of the secondary research; it is the information that is gathered based on the topic of research by other scholar and authors. Literature review is an argumentative section where various views of different authors are analyzed and put together to refer and form a platform for the primary research. Week 4: During the fourth week I have learnt about the legalities and the ethics that researchers observe globally in order to maintain a discipline and decorum in the academic and research arena. Plagiarism is one of the main focuses of the ethical codes that have to be observed by the researcher. Plagiarism is stealing anothers work in the name of oneself. This is ethically wrong is also a punishable offence. Week 5: I have gathered more information and understanding about the qualitative research in procedure in the report. Sampling of the population plays an important role in research process. Sampling is defined as the selection of appropriate respondents for the study to interview or conduct survey upon. There are two sampling procedures are probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Week 6: interview is based completely upon the communication skills of the researcher. The researcher has to be ready with the questions and should make the interviewee feel relaxed during the interview. Survey also should be conducted in such a way that the language that is sued in the questionnaire is in simple language and should always consist of open ended questions. Along with this during this period i also submitted a literature review on the topic of my choice (Bryman and Bell 2015). Week 7: I learnt how to measure and quantify the survey that I have conducted as Primary research. Charts diagrams and graphs are significant in research and the numerical variables serve as a better platform to analyse the topic in a more objective way. Week 7-12: After the literature review was done a research proposal was composed in order to show the procedure of the research process. The business research topic that has been chosen is the advantages and disadvantages of Social networking in the business. Social networking is one of the most relevant matters of discussion in todays world. The advent of internet and the increased popularity of the usage of internet with growing infrastructural facility have allowed scope of innovation and creativity in the digital front. One such ground breaking innovation of this decade is the social media or the social networking. Historically any form of development and innovation in mass communication has been significant in the growth of humanity. It is the same for social media as well. Social networking is an internet based applications and software that provides the consumer a platform to connect and communicate with person or a group of people who are geographically located in different parts of the world. Social networking is a part of social media. References: Bryman, A. and Bell, E., 2015.Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA. Collis, J. and Hussey, R., 2013.Business research: A practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students. Palgrave macmillan. Eriksson, P. and Kovalainen, A., 2015.Qualitative methods in business research: A practical guide to social research. Sage. Bryman, A. and Bell, E., 2015.Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA.